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Item 1,2,3-Triazoles: Synthesis and Biological Application(*, 2023) Abdul Aziz AliAmong nitrogen-containing heterocyclic compounds, 1,2,3-triazoles are privileged structure motif and received a great deal of attention in academics and industry. Even though absent in nature, 1,2,3-triazoles have found broad applications in drug discovery, organic synthesis, polymer chemistry, supramolecular chemistry, bioconjugation, chemical biology, fluorescent imaging, and materials science. Therefore, the development of facile and straightforward methodology for the synthesis of 1,2,3-triazoles is of noteworthy interest. In this study, emphasis will be given to numerous synthetic approaches for the synthesis of 1,2,3-triazoles, especially the popular click chemistry approach. Furthermore, several biological activities of this promising heterocycle will also be discussed.Item 1,4-Benzodiazepines and New Derivatives(*, 2023) Maria Dolors PujolItem 2-Methoxyestradiol in Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension(*, 2023) Stevan TofovicItem 21st Century Pedagogies and Citizenship Education(*, 2023) Yiola CleovoulouHow elementary teachers address citizenship is important in 21st century teaching and learning. Situating citizenship education within the varied global contexts of schooling and connecting content to pedagogical approach is a complex task. Even so, citizenship education can be the philosophical underpinning, or vision, for a teaching pedagogy that engages students in active, creative, and critical ways. This chapter illustrates key features and priorities for citizenship education by exploring the concepts of perspective taking, inquiry pedagogy and critical pedagogy and how they work together using the example of elementary school Social Studies in a Canadian context. Using examples from previous studies and narratives from elementary school teachers, this chapter includes portraits of classroom teachers' work using a critical inquiry-based approach. The chapter illustrates how resources can be used in teachers' planning to design learning that is nestled in citizenship education. Government curriculum documents as well as scholarly literature and teaching resources can support critical-inquiry for citizenship education. This teaching can lead to active, engaged citizens. There are many approaches to citizenship education; drawing awareness to perspectives and pedagogical possibilities is essential in teacher development. Teacher education is the ideal place for introducing and connecting foundations of education to best practice.Item 21st Century Theories of Education Administration(*, *) Joseph Makolandra; Forest Jones; Kevin G. Bezy; Cindy Delp; Brad E. Bizzell; Caroline Wray; Guylene Wood-Setzer; Nancy Leonard; Dawn Hutton; Asia Jones; Seydric Williams; Janet Womack21st Century Theories of Education Administration is one of the free open textbooks for Tertiary level. Feel free to use, adapt and modify the content to your own needs, and share the improved content with others because the book is offered under Creative Commons (CC) license. It allows users to repurpose the materials under the condition that original authors’ contribution is acknowledged.Item 2D Elastostatic Problems In Parabolic Coordinates(*, 2023) Natela ZirakashviliIn the present chapter, the boundary value problems are considered in a parabolic coordinate system. In terms of parabolic coordinates, the equilibrium equation system and Hooke's law are written, and analytical (exact) solutions of 2D problems of elasticity are constructed in the homogeneous isotropic body bounded by coordinate lines of the parabolic coordinate system. Analytical solutions are obtained using the method of separation of variables. The solution is constructed using its general representation by two harmonic functions. Using the MATLAB software, numerical results and constructed graphs of the some boundary value problems are obtained.Item 2D Gel Electrophoresis to Address Biological Issues(*, 2023) Domenica ScumaciTwo-dimensional (2D) gel electrophoresis is a high-resolution technique for the study of proteome. This chapter describes how it can be applied to characterize specific differences in the proteome profile of breast cancer cells following gene target interference. The proteome is the complete set of proteins encoded by a genome, and proteomic analysis consists in profiling the whole proteins expressed in a given cell, tissue, organ, or organism. Proteomic expression has the main purpose of qualitatively and quantitatively comparing proteins expressed under physiological and/or pathological conditions. Although it is not the unique approach used in modern proteomics, two-dimensional electrophoresis (2DE) is unrivaled allowing simultaneous separation of thousands of proteins and the detection of post-translational modification, not predictable through genome analysis. 2DE combines two physical principles to separate complex protein mixtures: the isoelectric point and the molecular weight. The result is a gel map in which each protein isoform present in the sample can be visualized as a spot, analyzed, quantified, and identified by mass spectrometry analysis. Here we outline features and advantages of the 2DE-based proteomic approach and we describe how 2DE meets biochemistry and molecular biology to address specific issues.Item 2D Organic-Inorganic Hybrid Perovskite Light-Absorbing Layer In Solar Cells(*, 2023) Qunliang SongWith the rapid development of high-performance perovskite solar cell, its instability has become an urgent problem to be solved. 2D perovskite is considered as a potential light absorbing material for perovskite solar cells due to its excellent stability. However, the preparation of high quality 2D perovskite films suitable for photovoltaic devices remains a challenge. In this chapter, based on the structural and photophysical properties of 2D perovskite thin film materials, the latest progress in 2D perovskite cells in recent years and the strategy of controlling the film quality of 2D perovskite are summarized, which is of great significance for the further development of 2D perovskite photovoltaic devices.Item 2D Relative Phase Reconstruction In Plasma Diagnostics(*, 2023) Michael SavilleInterferometric analysis methods for measuring plasma properties are presented with emphasis on emerging trends in 2D phase reconstruction. Using recent imagery from exploded-wire experiments the relative phase profiles from independent interferograms are reconstructed. The well-known Fourier Transform Method is presented and discussed. Then, the electron and atom densities are recovered from the phase by solving a linear system of equations in the form of line-integrated density profiles. The mathematical models of the line density and phase function are described and elucidate why interferograms of plasma suffer from low contrast, high signal-to-noise ratio and poorly defined fringes. Although these effects pose challenges for phase reconstruction, the interferometric diagnostic continues to advance the plasma science.Item 2D Shear Wave Elastography for Liver Fibrosis Evaluation(*, 2023) Alina PopescuItem 2D vs. 3D Cell Culture Models for In Vitro Topical (Dermatological) Medication Testing(*, 2023) Remigius AguDue to ethical concerns regarding animal testing, alternative methods have been in development to test the efficacy and safety of pharmaceutical products and medications, specifically topical (dermatological) medications. Two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) skin cell cultures are examples of in vitro methods used as an alternative to animal testing. The first skin cells cultured were keratinocytes, a type of cell predominantly in the epidermal layer of the skin. However, with differences in skin characteristics and pathophysiology of different skin conditions, various skin cell cultures and models to better mimic these differences have been developed. These cell cultures include not only keratinocytes but also other skin cell types, such as fibroblasts, which are predominantly in the dermal layer of the skin, and certain immune cells and even melanocytes. To have a better understanding of the type of cell cultures used for testing dermatological products, this chapter aims to outline the differences between 2D and 3D skin cell cultures while considering the advantages and disadvantages of each culture. Different types of cell culture models used for wound healing and for inflammatory skin conditions such as psoriasis will also be discussed.Item 2D- and 3D-QSRR Studies of Linear Retention Indices for Volatile Alkylated Phenols(*, 2023) Mohammed BouachrineItem 2D-Layered Nanomaterials For Energy Harvesting And Sensing Applications(*, 2023) Chuan-Pei LeeNanoscale electromechanical and energy harvesting devices based on few-layer and monolayer two-dimensional (2D) materials with non-symmetric configuration have received enormous attention in recent years. specifically, piezoelectric and triboelectric devices based on 2D materials for energy harvesting, physical/chemical sensing, healthcare, and optoelectronics applications have been a growing interest. In this chapter, the typical preparation methods of 2D-layered materials, such as exfoliation methods and chemical vapor phase deposition (CVD), will be discussed first. Then, various characterization techniques by atomic microscopic analysis for 2D materials will be provided briefly. Finally, future aspects of developing 2D piezoelectric and triboelectric devices and their potential applications will be introduced.Item 3D Boundary Layer Theory(*, 2023) Vladimir ShalaevSome new analytical results in 3D boundary layer theory are reviewed and discussed. It includes the perturbation theory for 3D flows, analyses of 3D boundary layer equation singularities and corresponding real flow structures, investigations of 3D boundary layer distinctive features for hypersonic flows for flat blunted bodies including the heat transfer and the laminar-turbulent transition and influences of these phenomena on flows, and the new approach to the analysis of the symmetric flow instability over thin bodies and studies of the control possibility with the electrical discharge using new model of this phenomenon interaction with the 3D boundary layer. Some new analytical solutions of boundary layer and Navier-Stokes equations are presented. Applications of these results to analyze viscous flow characteristics of real objects such as aircraft wings, fuselages, and other bodies are considered.Item 3D Computer Graphics And Virtual Reality(*, 2023) Branislav SobotaThis chapter is dedicated to the description of 3D computer graphics used for the needs of virtual reality. Virtual reality (VR) is the use of computer technology to create a 3D virtual environment. The chapter presents some graphical features used in an environment as well as an explanation of good design practice. The chapter contains also the description of lighting settings, 3D objects/models and virtualization sequence, camera, and scenes where the wheelchair simulator is used as an example of the implementation environment.Item 3D Ionic Networked Hydrophilic-Hydrophobic Nano Channeled Triboelectric Nanogenerators(*, 2023) Ravi Kumar ChidralaThe power demand is increasing day by day owing to the diminishing of fossil fuel reserves on the globe. To overcome the future energy crises, there is a strong need to fulfill the energy loophole by novel technologies such as triboelectric nanogenerators to harvest miniature resources from renewable natural resources. Here, I discussed the synthesis and fabrication of novel triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs) using highly reproducible power generators as electropositive surfaces from the monomers of naphthalene tetracarboxylic dianhydride, benzdiene diamine, and sulfonated polyimide (Bno-spi), and modified nonwoven carbon fibers (Wcf) and polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) and polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF) as electronegative TENG electrodes, respectively. Here, novel double characteristic hydrophilic and hydrophobic nano-channels concerned with Bno-spi films were proposed through contact electrification process through ion and electron transfer by an electron-donor-acceptor complex mechanism. The proposed Bno-spi-TENG system High triboelectric open circuit voltage 75¬†V (Voc) and short circuit current 1¬†ŒºA (Jsc) have been achieved from Bno-spi-TENGs, in particular, and for so3H.Bno-spi-TENG at 6¬†Hz. Besides that, we used improved knitted woven carbon fiber composite (wcf-CooH), as one of the TENGs to generate a greater open-circuit voltage (Voc), and short circuit current (Isc). Also, I aimed the contact and separation mode TENG which is using spring structure through oxidation of Wcf into Wcf-CooH followed by coupling of aniline through and one-step oxidative polymerization to get woven carbon fiber-polyaniline emraldine salt (Wcf-Pani.Es). The Wcf-PANI.Es composite film (thickness¬†~¬†100¬†nm) shows the surface resistivity of 0.324¬†Œ©¬†m, and functions as a rubbing surface to produce charges through harvesting of energy using vertical contact-separation mode TENG. The vibrant exchanges of novel Wcf-Pani.Es, and PVDF membrane produced higher Voc of 95¬†V, and Isc of 180¬†ŒºA, correspondingly. In specific, Wcf-Pani.Es -TENG is shown an enhancement of 498% of Voc concerning Wcf-CooH-TENG due to the availability of the Pani.Es layer. The novel Bno-spi-TENGs and Wcf-Pani.Es are the potential candidates for fulfilling the need for improved energy harvesting devices as an alternate substantial choice for contact-separation mode TENGs.Item 3D Modeling And Computer Graphics In Virtual Reality(*, 2023) Yuk TangIn the era of digital information technologies, 3D modeling and computer graphics techniques not only apply to the development of virtual models for computer simulation, artificial intelligence (AI), big data analytics, etc., but also they can be applied in many different applications in virtual reality (VR). However, the computer graphics effect and visual realism are usually the trade-offs with the real-time and realistic interaction in VR.¬†In this book chapter, we would like to review the general flow of the VR program development process, and the recent 3D modeling and texture painting techniques used in VR.¬†on the other hand, we would introduce some of the key 3D modeling and computer graphics techniques that can be applied in VR in order to enhance the speed of interaction. The key techniques including smoothing techniques and mesh editing modifiers are not only useful for the designers to learn the 3D modeling process, but it also helps to create less complex mesh models maintaining good visual effects. The techniques are particularly important in the development of 3D models to satisfy the demanding computation requirement of real-time interaction in VR program.Item 3D Models of Surrogate Multiple Myeloma Bone Marrow Microenvironments(*, 2023) Elisabetta Ferrero